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Microbial enzyme technology as an alternative to conventional chemicals in leather industry

N. R. Kamini, C. Hemachander, J. Geraldine Sandana Mala and R. Puvanakrishnan*

 

Department of Biotechnology, Central Leather Research Institute, Adyar, Chennai 600 020, India

http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul10/articles16.htm

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Leather industry contributes to one of the major industrial pollution problems facing the country, and the pollution causing chemicals, viz. lime, sodium sulphide, salt, solvents, etc. arise mainly from the pre-tanning processes of leather processing. In order to overcome the hazards caused by the tannery effluents, use of enzymes as a viable alternative has been resorted to in pre-tanning operations such as soaking, dehairing, bating, degreasing and offal treatment. This review focuses on the use of microbial enzymes as an alternate technology to the conventional methods, and highlights the importance of these enzymes in minimizing the pollution load.

Environmental pollution has been a major irritant to industrial development. Chemical and chemical-based industries are the prime targets of the environmentalists for their crusade against pollution, and leather industry has also not been left out of the reckoning. The generation of pollution is significantly high in the pre-tanning operations compared to the post-tanning operations¹. The chemicals mainly responsible for pollution in pre-tanning processes are lime, sodium sulphide, and caustic soda apart from common salt and degreasing chemicals. In fact, one third of the pollution caused by the leather industries results from the wastes generated during dehairing operations². The wastes from the tanneries are let out into the drains which in turn empty into the main sewerage causing hazard to those who use this water. Many tanneries have been forced to close down because of their noncompliance with the standards laid down. In a short span of time, Indian leather industry has faced serious challenges such as German ban on pentachlorophenate, certain azo dyes, formaldehyde, etc. on one hand, and court order for compliance with environmental regula-tions on the other³. The attention of tanners is
focused towards revamping the processing methods, recovery systems, and effluent treatment techniques to make leather processing eco-friendly. Intensive efforts are being directed towards using a viable alternative technology for pre-tanning processes using enzymes^4,5. This could be one of the ways of solving the industrial pollution problems resulting from tannery effluents.

Conventional leather processing

The raw hide has to undergo a series of chemical treatments before it turns into a flattering leather. This includes soaking, liming, dehairing, deliming, bating, degreasing, and pickling¹. For all these steps, the chemicals used are quite toxic. Thus due to these pretanning operations, the leather processing industry is one of the worst offenders of the environment.

The principal leather making protein, collagen, exists in hides and skins in association with various globular proteins, viz. albumin, globulin, mucoids; and fibrous proteins such as elastin, keratin, and reticulin. During leather manufacture, the noncollagenous constituents are removed partially or completely in the various pre-tanning operations; the extent of removal of these constituents decides the characteristics of the final leather. Besides chemical treatment, certain enzymatic treatments are also necessary to get optimum results. One such treatment, bating, is the only step in leather processing where enzymatic process cannot be substituted by chemical processes. The process of bating gives certain desired characteristics to the finished leather. Earlier, the process was carried out using dog dung or manure⁶. The use of this was not only unhygienic but fermentation could also not be controlled.

In pre-tanning operations, the hides and skins are first subjected to a water soak. For loosening the hair⁷, the oldest method is the ‘sweating’ process – a natural autolysis or breakdown process. It is a mild putrefaction process induced at random. Since the type and quantity of the putrefying bacteria cannot be controlled, the process itself eludes control. Moreover, since the sensitivity to attack the epidermal proteins and the fibrous proteins of the corium by the proteolytic enzymes is more or less the same, the sweating may result in serious damage to the hide surface. Dehairing is used to be followed by opening up of fibre structure in ‘liming’. The dehaired hide is transferred to an alkaline solution of lime milk where swelling occurs and the nonfibrillar proteins are dissolved. After mechanical removal of the subcutaneous tissue, deliming is performed in order to remove the adsorbed lime from the hide and to eliminate the lime swell.

The fat present in the hide skins is removed either as soluble lime soap or hydrolysis products like fatty acids. Kerosene, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and white spirit are used in the degreasing system which add to the toxicity of the environment and effluents¹. The various steps of the pre-tanning processes of leather manufacture are shown in Figure 1.

Enzymes in pre-tanning

An important enzyme used in pre-tanning processes belongs to the group of proteolytic enzymes, proteases. Obtained by microbial fermentation, the proteases are meant for use in the leather industry for dehairing, bating and soaking processes, and in the detergent industry for breaking down proteinaceous matter caused by body secretions, food stuffs, and blood⁸. The main advantages of the use of enzymes are specificity, stereospecificity, activity under mild conditions, possibility of producing ‘natural’ products, nonpollutants, and biodegradability⁹.

Although enzymes from plants, animals, and microbial sources have been used for decades, large-scale use of microbial enzymes received a boost only in 1960s following the introduction of fermentation technology. The enzymes or enzymatic formulations need not be pure but must be cheap compared to that of commercial chemicals used in leather industry.

Animal proteases and microbial proteases from bacteria and fungi are used in the pre-tanning processes of leather manufacture. The most important criteria for their selection are their specificity, pH activity range as well as pH and thermal stability. If an enzyme is to act uniformly, it must be able to diffuse into the hide and this is obviously acheived with skins rather than with hides. In the latter case, an accumulation of enzyme at the surface of the grain occurs. A pronounced difference between the pH value of the solution and that of the hide is also possible¹⁰.

The animal proteases are mixtures of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and various peptidases which may contain amylase or lipase as secondary enzymes. Mainly for economic reasons, enzymes from microorganisms have come to play a significant role in recent years and enzyme products of microbial origin are already being produced on a wide scale¹¹.

Since microorganisms can be made to propagate rapidly and profusely, they are an ideal source for enzymes¹². Mainly, neutral and alkaline proteases are obtained from bacteria, which differ in their pH activity range. Fungal proteases are also classified according to the pH activity range¹³ : fungal acid proteases act between pH 2.5 and 6.0 and can be derived from A. satoi. These are used for bating prior to pickling and serve to open up the fibre structure. Fungal alkaline proteases¹⁴ belong to the same group of serine proteases as alkaline bacterial proteases. However, these are more heat sensitive and are quickly deactivated above 60° C. Fungal neutral proteases are mainly obtained from Aspergillus or Penicillium species
Table 1 shows the various enzymes produced by various microorganisms used in the leather industry.

Apart from bacterial and fungal proteases, specific proteases like keratinases¹⁵ are known. Keratinases which hydrolyse keratins, are obtained from Streptomyces fradiae and can be used for dehairing¹⁰. Some of the important lipase-producing microorganisms used in degreasing are shown in Table 1. Lipases are used (i) in the oil and fat industry to modify fats for use in foods; (ii) in detergent compositions; (iii) for fatty acid production, lipid synthesis via reversal of hydrolysis and lipid modification by interesterification, and (iv) in degreasing of hides and skins¹⁶.

Enzymes in soaking

Soaking is the first operation in the tannery wherein the hides and skins are cleaned and softened with water¹⁷. Wet-salted or freshly slaughtered hides and skins do not require any chemical agent for their proper soaking⁴. Soaking is necessary for solubilization and elimination of salts and globular proteins contained within the fibrous structure of hides and skins. It is carried out under alkaline conditions at low temperature between 10° C and 20° C in water treated with antiseptics such as sodium hypochlorite, sodium pentachlorophenate, formic acid, etc.¹. It is accelerated by some of the nonionic detergents and additives such as sodium sulphide or sodium tetrasulphide.

The advantages of enzymatic soaking include loosening of the scud, initiation of the opening of the fibre structure, and production of leather with less wrinkled grain when used at an alkaline pH of less than 10.5 (ref. 6). Use of enzyme preparation in soaking of rabbit skins improves the softness and elasticity, and increases the area yield of the fur by 3.3% while reducing the processing time by 10–20 h (ref. 18).

Grimm¹⁸ has described a soaking method using proteolytic enzymes and carbohydrases in the pH range of 5.5 to 10.0. Enzymes from Aspergillus parasiticus, A. flavus, A. oryzae, and Bacillus subtilis have been used alone or in mixtures. Rokhvarger and Zubin²⁰ suggested the use of carbohydrase from the mold culture A. awamori in soaking. Botev et al.²¹ have reported the use of bacterial amylase for soaking dried wool lamb skins. Alkaline proteases of bacterial and fungal origin have been used for soaking which reduces the need for the liming chemicals by 30–60% (refs 22,23). Soaking of dried furs in an aqueous bath containing 1% acid proteinase from Rhizopus rhizopodiformis and sodium bisulphite at 25° C for about 20 h has been reported by Asbeck et al.²⁴. Orlita and Beseda²⁵ have tested three commercial bacterial alkaline protease preparations for the soaking of salted cow hides. Thus, use of enzyme preparations results in a decrease in soaking time.

Soaking is usually carried out using a combination of proteolytic enzymes that are optimally active in the neutral or alkaline pH range. For enzymatic soaking, the average soaking period for salted raw stock is about 4 h and for dried raw stock is about 8–10 h (ref. 26). A water soak without auxiliary agents takes 24 h for salted hides, and 36–48 h for dried hides.

Enzymes in dehairing

Dehairing is one of the main operations in the beamhouse. Five methods of dehairing are generally adopted, viz. (i) clipping process, (ii) scalding process, (iii) chemical process, (iv) sweating process, and (v) enzymatic process¹. Of these, the most commonly practiced method of dehairing of hides and skins is the chemical process using lime and sodium sulphide. However, the use of high concentrations of lime and sodium sulphide creates an extremely alkaline environment resulting in the pulping of hair and its subsequent removal. While one cannot question the efficacy of this process, its inherent disadvantages have to be taken note of. Significant amongst these are:

 

(i) It contributes in no small measure to the pollution load. Beamhouse processes generally account for 70–80% of the total COD of effluent from all leather making processes. About 75% of the organic waste from a tannery is from the beamhouse and 70% of this waste is from hair which is rich in nitrogen. These figures clearly illustrate the contribution made by the lime and sulphide process towards pollution²⁷.

(ii) Sulphide is highly toxic with obnoxious odor. If left untreated, it can cause major problems in the sewers.

(iii) The severe alkaline condition is a health hazard for the workers.

 Enzymatic dehairing is suggested as an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional chemical process⁶. The enzyme digests the basal cells of the hair bulb and
the cells of the malphigian layer. This is followed by loosening of hair with an attack on the outermost sheath and subsequent swelling and breakdown of the inner root sheath and parts of the hair that are not keratinized²⁸. Advantages of enzymatic dehairing are:

 (i) Significant reduction or even complete elimination of the use of sodium sulphide.

(ii) Recovery of hair of good quality and strength with a good saleable value.

(iii) Creation of an ecologically conducive atmosphere for the workers.

(iv) Enzymatically dehaired leathers have shown better strength properties and greater surface area.

(v) Simplification of pre-tanning processes by cutting down one step, viz. bating.

(vi) A significant nature of the enzymatic dehairing process is the time factor involved. The lime-sulphide process takes about 16 h, whereas the enzymatic dehairing would be also completed between 12 and 20 h (ref. 29).

 Proteolytic enzymes are of great commercial importance, contributing to more than 40% of the world’s commercially produced enzymes³⁰. Approximately 50% of the enzymes used as industrial process aids are proteolytic enzymes³¹. Proteolytic enzymes are more efficient in enzymatic dehairing than amylolytic enzymes¹.

Microbial proteases are derived from a wide variety of yeasts, molds, and bacteria³². Yeast proteases are mainly intracellular in nature and therefore these enzymes have not gained significant commercial interest. The protease from A. flavus was earlier being used for dehairing, and later it was reported that simultaneous dehairing and bating is possible with the protease of A. flavus³³. Gillespie³⁴ has observed that the enzyme preparation from cultures of A. oryzae, A. parasiticus, A. fumigatus, A. effusus, A. ochraceus, A. wentii, and P. griseofulvum exhibit marked depilatory activity on sheep skins.

CLRI has developed Clarizyme, an alkaline serine protease, produced by A. flavus used for the dehairing of skins and hides³⁵. A. flavus grows rapidly on wheat bran and produces large amounts of extracellular proteases. Extensive trials carried out in CLRI tannery have confirmed the successful use of this enzyme as a depilatory agent. The use of this enzymatic depilation process completely eliminates the use of sulphide, a toxic pollutant.

The fungal culture, Conidiobolus sp., isolated at NCL, produces high yields of extracellular alkaline protease³⁶. The enzyme is active at pH 10.0 and is being tried for many industrial applications. Enzymes derived from bacteria have gained much commercial interest^37,38 because of their easy production capabilities by submerged cultivation, high yield of enzyme, short duration for production, and easy recovery of the enzyme.

Proteolytic enzymes derived from a large number of Bacillus sp. and Streptomyces sp. have been used in dehairing of hides and skins^39,40. A lime and sulphide-free process of dehairing has been developed for the manufacture of suede from sheep skins using protease from B. subtilis⁴¹. Schlosser et al.⁴² have reported a method of depilation in an acid medium containing Lactobacillus culture.

In dehairing, the hair loosening is effected at pH 10.0 using fungal or bacterial enzymes; the treatment period being approximately 12–16 h, followed by hair removal using mechanical means¹⁰. The treatment period can be substantially reduced if the enzyme solution is fed in from the flesh side under pressure⁴³. Enzymatic hair loosening processes play a role wherever high-quality hair, wool or bristles are to be recovered.

Three methods of application are commonly used in the enzymatic dehairing process: (i) paint method, (ii) dip method, and (iii) spray method. In the paint method, the enzyme solution is mixed with an inert material like kaolin, made into a thin paste, adjusted to the required pH, applied on the flesh side of hides and skins, piled flesh to flesh, covered with polythene sheets and kept till dehairing takes place. In the dip method of enzymatic unhairing, the hides or skins are kept immersed in the enzyme solution at the required pH in a pit or tub. The disadvantage encountered in this method is the unavoidable dilution of the enzyme solution. Even though enzyme penetration is observed to be uniform, dehairing at backbone and neck is not up to the mark. A novel spraying technique has been adopted for the application of multienzyme concentrate in depilation⁴⁴. The advantages of this method over the painting and dip methods are that (i) even concentrated solutions can be sprayed, (ii) when the enzyme solution is sprayed on the flesh side with force, entry becomes easier, (iii) backbone and neck can be sprayed with more amount of enzyme, thereby making the process quicker, (iv) there is no effluent arising out of this method, and (v) after depilation, hair will be almost free from all the adhering skin tissues. Of late, dehairing by drumming is being practiced, and industrially this should be feasible.

Enzymes in bating

Bating is a very important process in which enzymes have been successfully employed for centuries. The concept of softening hides by treating them in a warm infusion of animal dung has been termed as ‘bating’ and the product used for such process is known as a bate. The main object of bating is to remove some of the nonleather-forming proteinous materials like albumins, globulin, and mucoids from hides and skins, and to allow splitting up of collagen fibres to facilitate the penetration of tanning materials and other processing chemicals, thereby giving the finished leather the desired characteristic properties like feel, softness, pliability, etc.¹.

Deliming and bating, the subsequent steps in the processing of the pelts after liming, are really two separate operations although they are usually carried out in one step and often overlap each other. The principal materials which a bate contains are a proteolytic enzyme, a carrier for the enzyme like wood flour, and a suitable deliming agent like ammonium chloride or sulphate or both. The deliming agents are used for the removal of lime salts which are used during the dehairing process.

The comparatively richer source for the proteolytic enzyme is the pancreas from bovine and pig. The proteolytic enzymes in the pancreas are present in inactive forms; chymotrypsin as chymotrypsinogen, trypsin as trypsinogen, and carboxypeptidase as procarboxypeptidase. A process has been patented for the activation of pancreatic enzymes by the use of acid protease from A. fumigatus⁴⁵.

Underkofler and Hickey⁴⁶ have described a process for the manufacture of enzyme bate from mold source. Trabitzch⁴⁷ have reported the use of enzymes from Aspergillus species in bating and dehairing. A procedure has been developed for bating pig skins, using an enzyme preparation from B. subtilis, and bated skins exhibit good physicochemical properties¹⁸. Bacterial preparation from S. rimosus and B. licheniformis have been tested for their bating action and it is found that solubilization of collagen has been less pronounced under the influence of microbial proteases than under the influence of pancreatic protease⁴⁸. A combination of both mold and pancreatic enzymes in suitable proportions will be an ideal bate for different types of leather.

In bating, pancreatic enzymes are used in combination with neutral and alkaline bacterial or fungal proteases. After loading the drum with the pelts, the float is fed in at 35–37° C and, then, the bating agent containing enzyme, ammonium salts and carrier material is added.

Enzymes in degreasing

Degreasing is an essential step in the production of glove and clothing leather. In this process there is removal of excess natural fats from greasy skins. The presence of natural grease in raw hides and skins, especially woolly sheep skins, results in various defects, viz. fatty spues, uneven dyeing and finishing, waxy patches in alum-tanned leathers, and pink stain on wet blues¹. During the degreasing operation in the pretanning process, the fat or grease is removed from the interfibrillary spaces of the skins to facilitate the even penetration of tanning materials, fat liquors, and dyes, etc. Degreasing helps to obtain soft and pliable leather for garment manufacture.

Degreasing is carried out after pickling, using aqueous emulsification with detergents, or by solvent extraction. It is well known that organic solvents like kerosene, petrol, perchloroethylene and trichloroethylene are highly unsafe and hazardous to the workers and heavily pollute the environment. The detergents, though not hazardous while handling and storing, cause serious pollution problems. These detergents and solvents add to the BOD load of the pickling effluent, and the chlorinated hydrocarbons and solvents add to the toxicity of the effluent⁴⁹.

Enzymatic degreasing is suggested as a viable alternative to combat the pollution problems caused by the use of solvents and detergents. Lipases which are projected as alternatives for solvents and detergents, catalyze the breakdown of fats and can be obtained from animal, microbial and plant sources. The advantages of using enzymes for degreasing are the elimination of solvents, reduction in surfactants, and possible recovery of valuable by-products. The disadvantages are that the lipases do not remove all types of fats in the same way that solvents do, and they add cost to the process.

In 1966, Trabitzsch⁴⁷ described the potential for lipases in degreasing skins. Baldano and Shestakova⁵⁰ compared the enzymatic and solvent degreasing of pig skin and have shown that both these methods remove approximately 50% of the grease. Yeshoda et al.⁵¹ used a fungal lipase for the degreasing of woolly sheep skins, pH range of 3.2–3.6 at 37° C for 1 h. Subsequently, Yeshoda et al.⁵² observed that degreasing and bating could be carried out simultaneously in the pH range of 7.8–8.0. An acid lipase from Rhizopus nodosus has been noticed to be very effective in the degreasing of sheep skins⁴⁹. Zhang reported use of alkaline lipase in combination with the proteinase and pancreatin in softening pig skin to improve the degreasing effect⁵³. Pfleiderer et al.⁵⁴ carried out degreasing of hides by soaking in an acidic bath containing a proteolytic enzyme (0.01–3.0%), and a nonionic surfactant (0.2–1.5%) or its mixture with anionic emulsifiers. A combination of proteolytic enzymes and emulsifiers gives optimum results in wet degreasing of sheep skins¹.

CLRI has developed a potent fungal lipase from A. niger⁵⁵ and a potent bacterial lipase⁵⁶. Comparative studies on degreasing of sheep skins using the bacterial lipase and commercial detergent-based degreasing agent Gelon-PK have been carried out. Improved degreasing results with the bacterial lipase, with added advantages of better softness, smoothness, and improvement in other physical properties⁵⁷. Furthermore, the lipase without detergent is observed to show 70% degreasing in 2 h, with the effluent showing minimal pollution load.

Enzymatic degreasing can be carried out with acidic or alkaline lipases of fungal or bacterial origin. For degreasing, pickled pelts are kept immersed in an enzyme bath containing microbial lipase and water pH of 3.6, and left in the same bath overnight at a temperature of 28–32° C. The degreased pelts are then removed from the bath and subjected to salt wash twice with water and common salt for 40 min. The washed pelts are repickled, chrome tanned and taken for further processing⁵⁰. The use of an alkaline lipase at a pH of 9.0 to 9.3 in the degreasing of pig skin results in short degreasing time and high degreasing efficiency⁵⁸.

Enzymes for by-products utilization and effluent treatment

Enzymes could be used in the treatment of fleshings and effluent from tannery processes. A combination of hydrolytic enzymes, viz. proteases, carbohydrases, and lipases would be required. The advantages to be realised include a protein by-product suitable for animal feed as well as energy conservation and fat recovery. Again, the major disadvantage would be the cost⁶.

When raw hides are processed to leather, a number of by-products such as native hide material (claws, tails, necks, fleshings), pelt waste (trimmings, machine fleshings, gluestock, pelt cuts), and tanned material (shavings, leather cuts, buffing dust, chrome cuttings) are obtained¹⁰.

Braeumer et al.⁵⁹ have described the enzymatic conversion of glue stock and other hide offal to technically useful byproducts by hydrolysing the pulverised hide wastes with an alkaline protease, pH 9.0–13.0, in the presence of urea, and then at pH 2.0–5.0 in the presence of a strong acid. Bronowski et al.⁶⁰ have shown that treating fleshings with pancreatic enzymes instead of heat treatment for separating the fat from the proteinaceous matter requires much less energy, and the yield is increased from 60–65% to over 90%. Sauer⁶¹ has described a process for the utilization of fleshings which consists of the enzymatic hydrolysis of the proteins, conditioning of the resulting liquid, and separating the fats and solids present in the hydrolysate. The outstanding feature of the process is a recovery of 91% of the fat in the fleshings and the application of the hydrolysate directly to the soil, as a fertilizer. Iliskovic and Mersed⁶² have described the separation of fats from the fleshy wastes from cattle hide processing by treatment with enzymes.

The problem of waste treatment can be approached (i) by getting rid of the pollution by proper effluent treatment, and (ii) by controlling pollution occurring at different stages of leather manufacture². Biotechnology plays an important role in tannery effluent treatment. The secondary treatment of tannery effluents, which relies on living organisms, is normally by anaerobic lagoons and aerobic lagoons. Open waste-ponds or anaerobic lagoons are installed in few south Indian tanneries where the atmospheric temperature (20–40° C) is suitable for this operation. In these ponds, microorganisms which thrive in oxygen-less environments are allowed to digest the waste. Anaerobic lagoons can be used for cleaning wastes coming from both the vegetable tanning and chrome tanning procedures. Closed type anaerobic systems are useful for tanneries situated in cold temperatures (5–10° C). Aerobic lagoon is a shallow water-tight pond of about 2–3 m depth. The wastes are kept for about a week. Fixed or floating type surface aerators blow oxygen or air into these for helping growth of organisms. This system requires less land and is economical for larger tanneries located in urban areas.

The necessity for chromium removal in tannery waste water is another area of waste management². Microorganisms such as A. fumigatus and species of Pseudomonas when grown on chrome waste can ‘leach’ out chromium. Pentachlorophenol, a preservative used for raw as well as semi-processed skins, creates problems during handling and also during biological effluent treatment. P. aeruginosa could be used successfully to degrade pentachlorophenol². Other potential techniques for reduction of pollution load are recycling of immobilized enzymes to hydrolyse the solid waste, and recycling of immobilized whole cells to absorb or detoxify toxic metals in the effluent.

Indian Leather Industry Foundation (ILIFO), a nonprofit association of major Indian tanners, and UNIDO’s Regional Programme for Pollution Control in the Tanning Industry in South–East Asia (RePO) have recently launched a research programme to find uses for treated tannery effluents in agriculture. At present, the experiment is on in the North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu, where several fruit, flower and vegetable plants are grown with irrigation from treated tannery effluents. Like treated effluent, tannery sludge also contains some nutrients which could be applied to agricultural fields. Disposal of sludge generated in the tannery effluent treatment process is a major bottleneck in tackling tannery pollution⁶³.

Conclusion

The tanneries in future will use a combination of chemical and enzymatic processes. The potential for use of microbial enzymes in leather processing lies mainly in areas in which pollution-causing chemicals, such as sodium sulphide, lime and solvents, are being used and conversion of waste products into potentially saleable by-products is possible. Future may witness ecolabelled leather/leather products emerging as niche products, and the experience gained by the Indian leather industry in this area might greatly help India to emerge as a global leader in leather industry.

 

Puvanakrishnan, R. and Dhar, S. C., in Enzyme Technology in Beamhouse Practice, NICLAI Publication, Madras, 1988, pp. 178.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We thank Dr T. Ramasami, Director, Central Leather Research Institute, Madras, for his permission to publish this work. We gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance extended to Mrs N. R. Kamini and Mr C. Hemachander by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, and to Ms J. Geraldine Sandana Mala by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India.

 

1. We always work against a Deliverable with definite value.
2. Deliverable can be
   a. as agreed with a customer against contract
   b. based on internal planning for a customer
   c. for general framework improvement
   d. for internal development for LeatherLink.
3. Against each deliverable a number of Issues will be created.
   Issues can be of type
   a. New Feature
   b. Code Defect
   c. Service Delivery
4. Each Issue will be assigned Severity (High -3, Medium -2, Low -2) and Complexity (High -3, Medium -2, Low -1) and linked to a Deliverable created referred to in 1,2.
5. Based on Priority, Complexity and Nature each issue will be given weightage points
   For New Feature, Code Defect : Points=Severity*Complexity+3
   For Service Delivery : Points=Severity*Complexity+10
6. Value of an Issue=Deliverable Value * (Issue Points/sum(points) of all issues for Deliverable)
7. Value of each task (New Feature, Code Defect) is determined as per the following calculation:
   a. Analysis = 25% of issue value
   Analysis should describe the business requirement of the issue and provide clear use cases for final testing before delivery

   b. Design = 25% of issue value
   Design should cover the following points:
   a. script changes - including new functions, use of existing functions, code etc
   b. database chagnes - schema changes, data manipulation
   c. test cases

   c. Coding = 15% of issue value
   coding also includes bug fixes found in testing and merging the tested code into pro version.

   d. Testing = 15% of issue value
   Testing should cover test cases mentioned in design and use cases mentioned in Analysis.

   e. Delivery = 20% of issue value
   Delivery includes updating code in client system, running scripts, explaining changes to the user, highlighting value of the issue delivered to the management.

8. Value of each task (Service Delivery) is determined as below:
   a. Analysis - 50% of value
   Analysis should list-out work to be done at client place in the following format.
   No, Work, Output, Benefit
   b. Delivery - 50% of value
   Delivery should give details of service delivered, customer feedback and details about approved formats and feedback form.

We have excellent commutation means - nice “Golden Quadrangle” roads. But what is itching is do we follow any system or rules while using these roads - I will ask the question differently - do we know what those Yellow lines, Two Yellow lines, White lines and Dotted White lines that are drawn on roads mean - you will be sure that it is not for appeal - what it means - let me share whatever I have heard from our Overseas friends

Basically they are for separation of lanes

White dotted lines - you can change lane if required (one should not drive on two lane simultaneously (most of indian driver’s favorite driving style - driving with dotted lines as center)

White lines - don’t cross if any one travels in the other lane - this will be drawn between two wheelers lane (do we know that) and main lanes and in places of short curves where one is not supposed to overtake - or overtake with care

Yellow lines - Never cross such lines - these will be drawn in places where there is crossings or other major roads are joining and in places where there is long curvatures - blind view for overtaking - never ever overtake in these places

Two Yellow lines - Its a pseudo physical separators - Never and never cross such lines - these appears in long curvatures where other roads crossing or joining is also happening

Can we follow these rules and educate others on these essentials

வாழ்க்கைக்கு ஒரு குறிக்கோள் வேண்டும். 50 ஆண்டுகளுக்குப் பின்பு என்ன சாதித்திருக்க வேண்டும்.

ஒவ்வொருவரும் தத்தமது வலிமைகளை அடையாளம் கண்டு கொண்டு தம்மை வளர்த்துக் கொள்ள வேண்டும்.

பேசும் போது ஒருவரும் சரிவரக் கேட்பதே இல்லை. அடுத்தவர் எப்போது முடிப்பார், நமது எண்ணத்தை வெளியிடலாம் என்று காத்துக் கொண்டிருப்பதுதான் தகவல் பரிமாற்றம் என்று பல நேரங்களில் நடக்கிறது.

தனி மனிதர்கள்தான் பெரும் மாற்றங்கள், அமைப்புகள், சாதனைகளுக்கு அடி முதல் காரணமாக இருக்கிறார்கள். நம்மை வளப்படுத்தி பலப்படுத்திக் கொண்டால்தான் அடுத்தவர்களுக்குக் கொடுக்க முடியும்.

மனித மனத்தில் ஆற்றலுக்கு அளவே இல்லை. நாம்தான் அதை குறுக்கிப் பிடித்திருக்கிறோம். ஒவ்வொரு நாளும் வந்து சேரும் தகவல்களை சரியாக அலசிப் புரிந்து கொண்டு சேமித்து வைத்துக் கொள்ள வேண்டும்.

பிறருடன் உறவாடும் போது மனம் அமைதியாக எந்த முன் தயாரிப்பும் இல்லாமல் இருக்க வேண்டும். தேவைப்படும் விபரங்களை எல்லாம் சேகரித்து உள்வாங்கிக் கொண்ட பிறகு, மனதின் மேற்பரப்பு முழு விழிப்புடன் அடுத்தவரின் உணர்வுகளை வார்த்தைகளை கேட்கும் ஆழத்துடன் தயாராக இருக்க வேண்டும்.

எதிர்கால கனவாக ஒன்றை வகுத்துக் கொண்டு, நாளின் ஒவ்வொரு செயலையும் அந்தக் கனவுடன் இயைந்திருக்குமாறு செய்து கொள்ள வேண்டும். மனத்தின் முழு சக்தியும் செய்யும் பணியில் குவிந்திருக்க வேண்டும்.

Before defining SLAs we need to have an infrastructure to support the defined goals and responsibility in SLAs. SLM process takes cares of that.

Please tell me ,exactly what is service level management (SLM)?

SLM is the process of setting, measuring, and ensuring the maintenance of service goals. Whatever may be the service, SLM helps companies make sure that the key targets for service success—such as performance, quality, are being met. SLM defines the metrics for measuring service success, and a process for responding when the metrics are not being met or are at risk of not being met.SLM is a concept often associated only with IT operations, but it can be applied to any business or service.

SLM -Best example Mumbai’s Dabbawalas.

Dabbawalla or Dabbawallah is a person in the city of Mumbai who is employed in a unique service industry whose primary business is collecting the freshly cooked food in lunch boxes from the residences of the office workers (mostly in the suburbs), delivering it to their respective workplaces and returning back the empty boxes by using various modes of transport.heir entire system depends on teamwork and meticulous timing. Tiffins are collected from homes between 7.00 am and 9.00 am, and taken to the nearest railway station. At various intermediary stations, they are hauled onto platforms and sorted out for area-wise distribution. There are lot of case management studies available. Still top level management gurus are wondering about the Dabbawala’s service success. http://www.mydabbawala.com/

Their SLM concepts are very simple.

• • • Defining the service (delivery of lunch boxes)
    • Providing metrics for measuring the service (delivering before 12:30 PM)
    • Making a guarantee of performance (Their current rating indicates a 99.999999 accuracy percentage of correctness, meaning one error in every six million transactions—an astonishing degree of exactness.)

SLM Concepts and Terminology

To ensure end-user satisfaction, or to meet overall cost and efficiency goals, an enterprise IT team must define the services it intends to deliver, metrics for measuring their success, a means for monitoring and ensuring service performance, and a method of responding if service levels are not met. ervice provider companies have a great need to set up, deliver, manage, and report on services for their customers. This requires additional capabilities, such as penalty calculation, SLA contract tracking, differentiable service levels, and customizable reporting by customer.

SLM is a tool to craft best service.

Service level management, or SLM, is a set of tools and disciplined, proactive procedures used to ensure that adequate levels of service are delivered to users in accordance with business priorities and at acceptable cost. It requires IT to define parameters, establish a baseline, set objectives, monitor and assess objectives, and refine and improve service levels. Clear and open communication between customer and service provider is essential for effective SLM. The service provider, whether internal to the enterprise or an external third party, must understand what the customer perceives as good service. In tandem, the customer must understand what is reasonable to expect of IT, given limitations in hardware, staffing, and other resources.

Service Level Agreements (SLAs)

Service level agreements, or SLAs, are an agreement between the customer and the service provider.An SLA usually contains:

A description of the service
The approval process for changes to the agreement.
A definition of terms.
Responsibility of service providers and customer.
Service metrics, which are defined in service level objectives (SLOs) and indicators (SLIs)

Service Level Objectives (SLOs)
Service level objectives, or SLOs, define the level of service that is to be provided, as agreed to by the parties involved. An SLA covering a service typically contains several SLOs. LOs include:

• Availability of support.
• Performance.
• Response Time.
• Service Level Guarantees.

Service Level Indicators (SLIs)
Service level indicators (SLIs) are at the heart of any SLA. It helps to find out ,whether the service functioned as well as it was supposed to. They allow SLM to be measured and quantified, and provide the assessment of whether or not a commitment is being met. SLIs should contains:

• Performance, and accuracy metrics
• Measurable quality definition.
• Necessary metrics for measurement.

Who is responsible for defining and monitoring SLM?

Here with I have attached a simple ORG_Chart.jpg to illustrate the organization structure to support SLM. There should be a separate department for Customer Service irrespective of the company size and business. In a small company, where there is no middle level management then, CEO/MD can play a dual role or first level management can play a dual role.

The roles defined here are place holders and any person can play that role. Companies must identify some one to play the defined role for successful SLM.

இந்தியப் பொருளாதரத்தின் தொழில் துறை வளர்ச்சி வீதம் 2008 ஜனவரி மாதத்தில் 5.3% ஆக குறைந்தது. 2007ம் ஆண்டில் இதே மாதத்தில் வளர்ச்சி வீதம் 11.6% ஆக இருந்தது.

அதாவது 2006ம் ஆண்டு ஜனவரியுடன் ஒப்பிடும் போது 2007ல் 11.6% வளர்ச்சி இருந்தது. 2007லிருந்து 2008ல் வளர்ச்சி 5.3% ஆக  இருந்தது (இது கூட வளர்ச்சிதான், ஆனால் வீதம் குறைவு).

சுரங்கத் துறை, பொது உற்பத்தி, மின் உற்பத்தி, நுகர்பொருட்கள், வீட்டு பயன்பாட்டுக் கருவிகள், முதலீட்டு இயந்திரங்கள் என்று வெவ்வேறு துறைகளின் உற்பத்தி மதிப்புக்கு குறிப்பிட்ட விகிதாச்சாரம் கொடுத்து  ொழில் துறை வளர்ச்சி குறியீட்டு எண் என்பதை நிர்ணயித்துக் கொள்கிறார்கள். இந்தக் குறியீட்டு எண்ணின் வளர்ச்சி அல்லது தேய்வுதான் உற்பத்தித் துறை மாற்றம் என்று சொல்கிறார்கள்.

இந்த குறியீட்டு எண் 1993-94ம் ஆண்டில் 100 ஆக இருந்ததாக வரையறுத்துக் கொண்டார்கள்.

சுரங்கத் துறை என்பது நிலக்கரி, தாதுப் பொருட்கள் முதலான இயற்கை வளங்களைத் தோண்டி எடுக்கும்  பணியைச் செய்வது

முதலீட்டு இயந்திரங்கள் உற்பத்தியில் ஏற்படும் மாற்றம் உன்னிப்பாக கவனிக்கப் படும். ஒரு மாதத்தில் இயந்திரங்களில் முதலீடு குறைகிறது என்றால் அடுத்தடுத்த மாதங்களில் மற்ற பொருட்களின் உற்பத்தி குறையும் என்று கணக்குப் போடலாம். முதலீடு அதிகமானால்தான் உற்பத்தித் திறன் அதிகமாகி உற்பத்தி அளவும் அதிகரிக்கும்.

அதனால் இயந்திரங்களின் உற்பத்திக் குறைவு அதிகமான கவலையை ஏற்படுத்தியுள்ளது.

வால்ஸ்ட்ரீட் ஜெர்னல் நாளிதழில் வெளியாகியுள்ள ஒரு கட்டுரையில் அமெரிக்காவைச் சேர்ந்து இரண்டு மேலாண்மை வல்லுனர்கள், தகவல் தொழில் நுட்பம் இன்றைய நிறுவனங்களில் பயன்படுத்தப்படும் முறைகளைப் பற்றி அலசியிருக்கிறார்கள்.

முழுக் கட்டுரையை இங்கு படிக்கலாம்.

அதைப் பற்றிய ஸ்லாஷ்டாட் விவாதத்தை இங்கு படிக்கலாம்.

சில குறிப்புகள்:

1. தகவல் தொழில் நுட்பக் கருவிகளைப் பயன்படுத்துவதன் மூலம் நிறுனத்தின்  ஆதாய வீதத்தை அதிகரிப்பதோடு தகவல் தொழில் நுட்பத்தில் செய்யும் முதலீட்டில் நல்ல வருமானத்தையும் ஈட்டலாம்.

2. இருபத்தொன்றாம் நூற்றாண்டின் தகவல் தொழில் நுட்ப பொருளாதாரத்தில் வெற்றியடைவதற்கு , நிறுவனத்தின் அடிப்படைத் திட்டமிடலின் போது தகவல் தொழில் நுட்பத்தை கருத்தில் கொள்ள வேண்டும்.

3. நிறுவனத்தின் தொழிலை நன்கு புரிந்த தொழில் முறை மேலாளரை தகவல் தொழில் நுட்பப் பிரிவின் தலைமைப் பொறுப்பில் அமர்த்த வேண்டும். நிறுவனத்தின் ஒவ்வொரு பிரிவிலும் தகவல் தொழில் நுட்பத்தை ஒன்றுபடுத்த அவர் தலைமை நிர்வாகிகளுடன் இணைந்து செயல்பட வேண்டும்.

4. தொழில் நுட்ப முன்னேற்றங்கள், சந்தையிலும் பொருளாதாரத்திலும் மாற்றங்களின் வேகத்தை அதிகரித்துள்ளன. இதனால் ஏற்படும் வாய்ப்புகளையும் பாதகங்களையும் உடனுக்குடன் அடையாளம் கண்டு, சரியாக புரிந்து, எதிர் வினை ஆற்றுவது  நிறுவனத்தின் வளர்ச்சிக்கும் வளத்துக்கும் இன்றியமையாததாகிறது.

5. நிறுவனத்தின் பல்வேறு மட்டங்களில் இருக்கும் மேலாளர்கள், தகவல் தொழில் நுட்பத்தின் மூலம் செய்யக் கூடிய மேம்பட்ட தகவல் மேலாண்மை, தொழில் முறை அறிவு மேம்படல், தகவல் பாதுகாப்பு, மாற்றங்களை கையாளுதல், செய்முறைகளை ஒருங்கிணைத்தல் போன்றவை நிறுவனத்தின் வெற்றிக்கு இன்றியமையாதவை என்பதை புரிந்து கொள்ள வேண்டும்.

6. தகவல் தொழில் நுட்பத்துக்காகத் திட்டமிடும் செலவினங்களும் முதலீடுகளும் மற்ற செலவினங்களைப் போலவே நுணுக்கமாகக் கட்டுப்படுத்தப்பட்டு கண்காணிக்கப்பட வேண்டும்.

ஐபிஎம் நிறுவனங்களுக்கு தகவல் தொழில் நுட்ப சேவைகள் வழங்கும் நிறுவனமாகத் தன்னை மறு அடையாளப்படுத்திக் கொண்டது.  பயனர் கணினிப் பிரிவை லெனோவோ நிறுவனத்துக்கு விற்று விட்டது. இன்றைக்கு விற்பனையில் ஒரு பெரும் பகுதி சேவைகளிலிருந்து கிடைக்கிறது.

ஆரக்கிள் நிறுவனம் நிறுவன வள மேம்பாட்டு சேவை நிறுவனமாக தன்னை அடையாளப்படுத்திக் கொண்டது. தரவுத் தளம் மட்டும விற்கும்் நிறுனமாக இருந்து நிறுவனத்துக்குத் தேவையான எல்லா சேவைகளையும் வழங்கும் படி மற்ற சின்ன நிறுவனங்களை வாங்கி உள்வாங்கி சக்கை போடு போடுகிறது.

மைக்ரோசாப்டுக்கு அடுத்த சில ஆண்டுகளுக்கு மேசைக் கணினிகளுக்கு இயங்குதளமும் அலுவலக மென்பொருளும் விற்பதிலேயே நிறைந்து விடும். அதைச் சுற்றிச் சுற்றி மதில்கள் எழுப்புவதிலேயே முழுக்கவனமும் இருப்பது போல தெரிகிறது.

சன் மைக்ரோ சிஸ்டம் என்ன செய்கிறது?

ஜாவா தொடர்பான சேவைகளில் அதை உருவாக்கிய சன்னை முந்தி விட்டன பிற நிறுவனங்கள். சன் தனது இயங்குதளம் சோலாரிசை ஓப்பன் சோர்சாக வெளியிட்டு விட்டது. லினக்சு முதலான ஓப்பன் சோர்சு மென்பொருட்களுக்கும் ஆதரவு உண்டு.

சோலாரிஸ் கணினிகளின் விற்பனை வளர்ச்சி போதுமானதாக  இல்லை. எங்கே போகிறது சன்?

W hen we say agreement, it is an understanding and commitment between tow parties or more than one party. Parties involved thru an agreement must respect and honor the agreement, otherwise the purpose of this agreement will never be met. When an individual take a New Year resolution, it is not bounded by any laws or agreement. Violation or not respecting that New Year resolution won’t harm any one else other than the person who took the resolution.

In a corporate world, dishonoring any agreement will result in dissatisfaction and affect the entire business. For example if we are not able to meet the customer expectations agreed thru SLAs , that will lead to permanent damage to the client relationship. Before making the SLAs we must set up the internal resources that are capable of managing Service Level Management (SLM) process. Only using this structured process, we as a service provider can define very specific SLAs for each customer and follow that.

In coming days we will lay foundation for SLM by appointing Vice President, Technical Support and Customer Service. Foundation stone cannot be put up in the air, we need some solid soil to shoulder the responsibility. Now identified the solid soil, let build the SLM.